• Motivation

• Scientific Management

• Human Relationship Approach

• Douglas McGregor -Theory X and Theory Y

• Fiedler's Contingency Model

• Conflict Resolution: Thomas

• Hersey/Blanchard's Situational Leadership model:

• Transfomational Leadership

• Transactional Leadership

• Path Goal

• Organizational Humanist Chris Argyris

• Adams' Equity Theory

• Victor Vroom

• Frederick Herzberg's Motivation and Hygiene Factors

• David McClelland Motivational Needs Theory

• Cognitive Dissonance
  Black Letter Law Concept:

Motivation

For managers to archive optimal performance and productivity they must motivate employees to give 100%

Motivation: What causes people to behave the way they do

The psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal; the reason for the action; that which gives purpose and direction to behavior

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Scientific Management

Traditional efficiency expert type management, humans are just machines to be tweaked for performance
original TheorY X

Rational economical based
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Human Relationship Approach

Hawthorn studies relationships matter, Happiness empowerment, inclusion
Theory Y all below are relationship

Must address the relationship and workers needs
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Leadership styles, Task vs Relationship style

Douglas McGregor -Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor in his book, "The Human Side of Enterprise" published in 1960 has examined theories on behavior of individuals at work, and he has formulated two models which he calls Theory X and Theory Y.

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The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.

• Because of their dislike for work, most people must be controlled and threatened before they will work hard enough.
• The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes responsibility, is unambiguous, and desires security above everything.
• These assumptions lie behind most organizational principles today, and give rise both to "tough" management with punishments and tight controls, and "soft" management which aims at harmony at work.
• Both these are "wrong" because man needs more than financial rewards at work, he also needs some deeper higher order motivation - the opportunity to fulfill himself.
• Theory X managers do not give their staff this opportunity so that the employees behave in the expected fashion.

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Theory Y Assumptions

• The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.
• Control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work, man will direct himself if he is committed to the aims of the organization.
• If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the organization.
• The average man learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
• Imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems by a large number of employees.
• Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average man are only partially utilized.
   

Original Situational leadership, different styles (Task or Relationship), for different situation
Feidler was groundbreaking in saying one style does not fit all !

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Fiedler's Contingency Model

• Popular for the last 30 years.

• Point: the situation determines which leadership behaviors are most
  likely to be effective.

1. Fiedler's (1967) Contingency Model

• One of the first contingency theories.

• LPC for Least Preferred Coworker Scale used to divide people
  into socioemotional or task leaders.

• Rate the co-worker whom with which you had the most difficulty
  working to get a job done.

• The more favorable your ratings, the more "relationship oriented"
  you are (value good interpersonal relations with subordinates over
  task success).

• The more unfavorable, the more "task-oriented"
• Task-oriented (low LPC) leader is effective under two conditions:

• leader is on good terms with group members, the task is highly
  structured, and the leader has a position of high authority and power.

• leader has poor relations with group members, the task is ambiguous,
  and the leader has low authority and power.

• Socioemotional leader is ineffective in situations where:

• Member relations are especially bad because they spend too much time
  worrying about interpersonal relations that cannot be fixed instead of
  directing attention to the task.

• Task is highly ambiguous because they do not provide enough task guidance.

• Socioemotional leader is effective when leader-member relations are
  moderately good or moderately bad, when the task is moderately
  clear, and the leader has moderate authority and power.
• Fielder's model generated a lot of research and critique.
• In particular, his LPC measure was criticized for being a rather
  mysterious measure of the leader's orientation
• Fiedler deserves credit for the important idea that different
  leadership styles may be called for in different situations.
• Good leadership does require a match between the personal
  style of a leader and the leadership situation

Link | Link | Link

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Conflict Resolution: Thomas 1976 More

This is the most popular, its a combination of task vs relationship based on 4 possible situation situation
Also popular in industry

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Hersey/Blanchard's Situational Leadership model:

Hersey-Blanchard's Situational Leadership Theory suggests that successful leaders adjust their styles depending on the readiness of followers to perform in a given situation. Blanchard believed that the leader's style can and should be changed as followers mature over time. The four levels of readiness under Hersey-Blanchard's model are the delegating style (high readiness), telling style (low readiness), participating style (low-to moderate readiness), and selling style (moderate to high readiness situations).

Like theory X

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Transactional Leadership

1. Transactional leadership (Ordinary Leadership)
a. Focused on the immediate situation and getting the job done.

1. 4 different forms (in order of effectiveness):

Contingent Reward . Leader motivates by setting goals and rewarding
goal achievement, rewards effort by support and help to subordinates.

Active Management by Exception . Leader monitors performance, acting
only when problems are brought to his/her attention, maintains control
by enforcing rules.

Passive Management by Exception . Leader is largely "hands off"
intervening only when a problem is brought to his/her attention.

Laissez-faire Leadership . Leader is uninvolved and largely unavailable
and unresponsive to requests for help.

LiKe theory Yf

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Transfomational Leadership

Link

Charisma . Leader has a vision and is respected and trusted by followers
who strongly identify with him/her.

Inspiration . Leader's communications increase optimism and enthusiasm
for the tasks.

Intellectual Stimulation . Leader fosters creativity among followers and
stimulates them to look at things in new ways.

Individualized Consideration . Leader gives personal attention to
members, acting as an advisor and coach, and giving personal feedback
and stimulating personal development.

3. Can a leader be effective without being transformational?

• Bass (1997): transformational leaders are more effective than
  transactional leaders but those transformational leaders that use
  a contingent-reward approach are especially effective.

• Where routine performance is required, the transactional leader
  may be adequate.

• Where extraordinary effort is required, as is the case with social
  change or organizational or product innovation, a transformational
  leader is probably needed.

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Path Goal

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership (House & Dessler, 1974)
Based upon expectancy-valence theory.
People are motivated when they believe that increased effort will lead to increased
performance and increased performance will lead to increased rewards that are
valued by the individual.
Leaders are effective when they increase subordinate goal attainment and
clarify paths to work goals.
Clarifying and enhancing the path-goal relationship depends on assessing
two situational variables:

1) characteristics of the subordinates such as skills and personality
2) characteristics of the environment such as type of task.

Member who lacks the experience or training to perform a task, will welcome
more leader intervention than a member who is confident about her ability
to perform the task.
Structuring leadership activities such as specifying tasks and goals will be
welcomed when the member's job or role is unclear but will have negative
effects if the member already knows what the goal is and how to reach it.

Interpersonally-oriented leader behaviors are important when the task is aversive or boring.
If the member's task is intrinsically satisfying, then a supportive leader behavior has few effects.

Link

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Organizational Humanist Chris Argyris

Needs theory, look to motivate by appealing to the needs of the individual

Ego and self actualization, , mature and im mature

A purist needs theory, closest to maslow

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j stacey adams - equity theory on job motivation

John Stacey Adams, workplace and behavioural psychologist, put forward his Equity Theory on job motivation in 1963. There are similarities with Charles Handy's extension and interpretation of previous simpler theories of Maslow, Herzberg and other pioneers of workplace psychology, in that the theory acknowledges that subtle and variable factors affect each individual's assessment and perception of their relationship with their work, and thereby their employer. Awareness and cognizance feature more strongly than in earlier models, as does the influence of colleagues and friends, etc, in forming cognizance, and in this particular model, 'a sense of what is fair and reasonable'.

adams' equity theory

We each seek a fair balance between what we put into our job and what we get out of it. Adams calls these inputs and outputs. We form perceptions of what constitutes a fair balance or trade of inputs and outputs by comparing our own situation with other 'referents' (reference points or examples) in the market place. We are also influenced by colleagues, friends, partners in establishing these benchmarks and our own responses to them in relation to our own ratio of inputs to outputs.

If we feel are that inputs are fairly and adequately rewarded by outputs (the fairness benchmark being subjectively perceived from market norms and other comparables references) then we are happy in our work and motivated to continue inputting at the same level.

If we feel that our inputs out-weigh the outputs then we become demotivated in relation to our job and employer. People respond to this feeling in different ways: generally the extent of demotivation is proportional to the perceived disparity between inputs and expected outputs. Some people reduce effort and application and become inwardly disgruntled, or outwardly difficult, recalcitrant or even disruptive. Other people seek to improve the outputs by making claims or demands for more reward, or seeking an alternative job.

Managers must acknowledge and reward success to motivate, lack of appropriation is de-motivating
Pay for Performance try's to use pay and as a reward

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Victor Vroom

Valence is the importance placed upon the reward. Expectancy is the belief that efforts are linked to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to rewards. For example a salesman's expectancy is his belief that more number of phone calls (effort) will result in higher sales (performance). His instrumentality is that higher sales (performance) will result in higher commissions (rewards). His valence is the importance attached to the commissions (rewards).

These three factors result in motivation. If any one of these factors doesn't exist then motivation vanishes. If the salesman doesn't believe greater effort leads to peformance then there is no motivation. Similarly, if commissions don't increase with sales then instrumentality disappears.

The BEST Needs Theory, 2 levels
if you read his journal article, its very practical,
It discounts external, material motivators and says real motivation comes by appealing to the higher levels needs of workers

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Frederick Herzberg's Motivation and Hygiene Factors

Hygiene Factors include

• Working conditions
• Salary
• Status
• Security
• interpersonal relations

• Achievement
• Achievement Recognition
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth

• High Hygiene / High Motivation: The ideal situation where employees are highly motivated and have few complaints
• High Hygiene / Low Motivation: Employees have few complaints but are not highly motivated. "The job is a paycheck" situation
• Low Hygiene / High Motivation: Employees are motivate but have a lot of complaints. A situation where the job is exciting and challenging but salaries and work conditions are not up to par.
• Low Hygiene / Low Motivation: The worst situation. Unmotivated employees with lots of complaints.

Frederick Herzberg's book 'The Motivation to Work', written with research colleagues B Mausner and B Snyderman in 1959, first established his theories about motivation in the workplace. Herzberg's work, originally on 200 Pittsburgh engineers and accountants, has become one of the most replicated studies in the field of workplace psychology.

Herzberg was the first to show that satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work nearly always arose from different factors, and were not simply opposing reactions to the same factors, as had always previously been (and still now by the unenlightened) believed.

See the Herzberg hygiene factors and motivators graph diagram , and the Herzberg diagram rocket and launch pad analogy diagram , (both require the Acrobat free reader ).

He showed that certain factors truly motivate ('motivators'), whereas others tended to lead to dissatisfaction ('hygiene factors').

According to Herzberg, Man has two sets of needs; one as an animal to avoid pain, and two as a human being to grow psychologically.

He illustrated this also through Biblical example: Adam after his expulsion from Eden having the need for food, warmth, shelter, safety, etc., - the 'hygiene' needs; and Abraham, capable and achieving great things through self-development - the 'motivational' needs.

Certain parallels can clearly be seen with Maslow .

Herzberg's research proved that people will strive to achieve hygiene needs because they they are unhappy without them, but once satisfied the effect soon wears off - satisfaction is temporary. Examples of hygiene needs in the workplace are policy, relationship with supervisor, work conditions, salary, company car, status, security, relationship with subordinates, personal life.

True motivators were found to be other completely different factors: achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and personal growth.

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David McClelland Motivational Needs Theory

David McClelland is most noted for describing three types of motivational need, which he identified in his 1988 book, Human Motivation:

• achievement motivation (n-ach)
• authority/power motivation (n-pow)
• affiliation motivation (n-affil)

These needs are found to varying degrees in all workers and managers, and this mix of motivational needs characterises a person's or manager's style and behaviour, both in terms of being motivated, and in the management and motivation others.

the need for achievement (n-ach)

The n-ach person is 'achievement motivated' and therefore seeks achievement, attainment of realistic but challenging goals, and advancement in the job. There is a strong need for feedback as to achievement and progress, and a need for a sense of accomplishment.

The n-pow person is 'authority motivated'. This driver produces a need to be influential, effective and to make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. There is also motivation and need towards increasing personal status and prestige.

The n-affil person is 'affiliation motivated', and has a need for friendly relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other people. The affiliation driver produces motivation and need to be liked and held in popular regard. These people are team players.

McClelland said that most people possess and exhibit a combination of these characteristics. Some people exhibit a strong bias to a particular motivational need, and this motivational or needs 'mix' consequently affects their behaviour and working/managing style. Mcclelland suggested that a strong n-affil 'affiliation-motivation' undermines a manager's objectivity, because of their need to be liked, and that this affects a manager's decision-making capability. A strong n-pow 'authority-motivation' will produce a determined work ethic and commitment to the organisation, and while n-pow people are attracted to the leadership role, they may not possess the required flexibility and people-centred skills. McClelland argues that n-ach people with strong 'achievement motivation' make the best leaders, although there can be a tendency to demand too much of their staff in the belief that they are all similarly and highly achievement-focused and results driven, which of course most people are not.

McClelland's particular fascination was for achievement motivation, and this laboratory experiment illustrates one aspect of his theory about the affect of achievement on people's motivation. McClelland asserted via this experiment that while most people do not possess a strong achievement-based motivation, those who do, display a consistent behaviour in setting goals:

McClelland suggested other characteristics and attitudes of achievement-motivated people:

• achievement is more important than material or financial reward.
• achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than receiving praise or recognition.
• financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success, not an end in itself.
• security is not prime motivator, nor is status.
• feedback is essential, because it enables measurement of success, not for reasons of praise or recognition (the implication here is that feedback must be reliable, quantifiable and factual).
• achievement-motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of doing things better.
• achievement-motivated people will logically favour jobs and responsibilities that naturally satisfy their needs, ie offer flexibility and opportunity to set and achieve goals, eg., sales and business management, and entrepreneurial roles.

McClelland firmly believed that achievement-motivated people are generally the ones who make things happen and get results, and that this extends to getting results through the organisation of other people and resources, although as stated earlier, they often demand too much of their staff because they prioritise achieving the goal above the many varied interests and needs of their people.

Interesting comparisons and relationships can be drawn between McClelland's motivation types, and the characteristics defined in other behavioural models, eg:

Hersey/Blanchard's Situational Leadership model: Achievement-motivated people tend to favour the styles of the first and second modes ('telling' an 'selling'); affiliation-motivated people tend to favour the third mode ('participating'); and the authority-motivated people tend to favour the style of mode four ('delegating'). (More detail on the Tuckman page.)

McGregor XY Theory: Achievement-motivated people tend towards X-Theory style, due to their high task focus; there are plenty of exceptions however, and training definitely helps the n-ach manager to see the value of employing Theory Y style. n-pow managers are definitely Theory X. n-affil are typically Theory Y and if not can relatively easily be trained to be so.

Herzberg motivators and hygiene factors: n-ach people are more responsive to the Herzberg motivators (especially achievement obviously) than n-affil and n-pow people.

If you'd like advice about developing motivation, management and organisational performance please get in touch .

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Cognitive Dissonance
Black Letter Law Concept:

"Inconsistency among related beliefs . . .produces motivation to do whatever is easiest in order to regain cognitive consistency or consonance among beliefs."
Jones and Gerard, Foundations of Social Psychology ,1967, John Wiley and Sons, at p. 42.

Background of Cognitive Dissonance

Leon Festinger formulated this theory "from a very general theory of 'cognitive dissonance'." ( ibid. , at p. 42) Festinger explored the psychological state that resulted when two cognitions were contradictory. By contradictory he meant that they "were either logically inconsistent or incompatible with the person's past experience. ( ibid. , at p. 190) Festinger believed that when there was inconsistency, or when there was conflict with the person's past experience, that this makes us uncomfortable enough that we'll take the simplest way out to get consistency again.

Jones and Gerard give two examples that can explained by cognitive dissonance theory. ( ibid. , at p. 43) One is the reaction of a religious group whose prophecy fails to come true. Research ( ibid. , at p. 22 ff.) has shown that if a group predicts, say, the end of the world, and at the appointed time the world does not end, the group responds to this failure of the prophecy by suggesting that their activity warded off the anticipated apocalypse, and begins to proselytize on the grounds that theirs is the effective belief system for warding off such disaster. One might have thought that failure of the prophecy would suggest that the group could not predict. But such an interpretation would produce dissonance with the group's strongest beliefs. On the other hand, the interpretation that they had successfully warded off the disaster does not produce such dissonance with their belief system.

Another example: "severe initiation leads to liking." ( ibid. , at p. 43) Research has shown that people exhibit greater liking of an organization that subjects them to severe initiation than to one that subjects them only to a mild initiation. This result can be explained by cognitive dissonance theory. There is conflict between the negative affect that the person experiences in response to the initiation, since the person has chosen to go through the initiation to gain entrance to the organization. This conflict produces discomfort and tension. The person can resolve this tension by justifying the initiation as "worth it" because of the positive things he or she will gain from the benefits of membership. The more effort put into the justification process, the more attachment the person has to the organization. The more difficult the initiation, the greater the need for justification. Thus the stronger the commitment to the organization.